Food safety depends on time and temperature, not appearance alone. USDA estimates that foodborne illness causes roughly 48 million illnesses, 128,000 hospitalizations, and 3,000 deaths in the United States each year. The figures below bring together current USDA and FDA standards with CDC restaurant studies, keeping each measurement period and geography explicit.
Contents
- Why temperature measurement matters
- Safe minimum temperatures
- FDA time-temperature standards
- Placement and thermometer accuracy
- Reheating, cooling, and hot holding
- What restaurant studies show
Why temperature measurement matters
USDA’s current food-thermometer guidance identifies 40°F to 140°F as the range in which perishable food left out for more than 2 hours presents a food-safety risk. USDA also states that most foodborne pathogens are destroyed between 140°F and 165°F. These are current USDA guidance figures, accessed in 2026, rather than estimates for a particular household or cooking method. (USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
Appearance is an imperfect test. In a USDA study, 21% of participants relied on visual cues such as color or grill marks to decide whether hamburger patties were fully cooked. USDA’s current guidance says most food thermometers give readings accurate within 2–4°F when used correctly. That range is a practical reminder that placement and calibration matter when a food is close to its target temperature. (USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
For a home cook, a thermometer therefore answers a narrower and more useful question than “Does this look done?” It measures the internal temperature at a selected point. The official numbers below are minimums or process standards, and they should be matched to the food category and cooking context.
Safe minimum temperatures
USDA’s current chart, accessed in 2026, gives these minimum internal temperatures for common foods:
| Food | Minimum internal temperature | Additional requirement |
|---|---|---|
| Beef, pork, veal, and lamb steaks, chops, roasts | 145°F (62.8°C) | Rest at least 3 minutes |
| Ground meats | 160°F (71.1°C) | — |
| All poultry | 165°F (73.9°C) | Includes stuffing and ground poultry |
| Fish and shellfish | 145°F (62.8°C) | — |
| Eggs | 160°F (71.1°C) | — |
| Leftovers | 165°F (73.9°C) | — |
| Casseroles | 165°F (73.9°C) | — |
The 145°F standard applies to beef, pork, veal, and lamb steaks, chops, and roasts when followed by at least 3 minutes of rest. USDA sets ground meats at 160°F and all poultry at 165°F. The poultry category includes breasts, whole birds, legs, thighs, wings, ground poultry, giblets, and stuffing. Fish and shellfish require 145°F, while eggs require 160°F. (USDA, “Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart”)
USDA also lists 165°F for leftovers and casseroles. Fresh or smoked uncooked ham requires 145°F followed by at least 3 minutes of rest. For reheating fully cooked ham, the chart lists 140°F for ham packaged in USDA-inspected plants and 165°F for all other fully cooked ham. The center of stuffing inside whole poultry must reach 165°F before serving. (USDA, “Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart”; USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
These USDA chart values are not a single universal rule for every regulated food-service process. The FDA Food Code uses time-temperature combinations for several categories, so the duration at a temperature can change the applicable standard.
FDA time-temperature standards
The 2022 FDA Food Code specifies 145°F for 15 seconds for fish and intact meat, except for listed roast and steak exceptions. It specifies 155°F for 17 seconds for nonintact meats, ratites, and raw eggs not prepared for immediate service. For poultry, baluts, wild game animals, and stuffed fish, meat, pasta, poultry, or ratites, it specifies 165°F for less than 1 second. Raw eggs prepared to a consumer’s order for immediate service are specified at 145°F for 15 seconds. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”)
For the FDA Food Code’s 155°F category, permitted alternatives include 145°F for 3 minutes, 150°F for 1 minute, or 158°F with an instantaneous holding time. These combinations show why a thermometer reading should be interpreted with the required holding time rather than treated as an isolated number. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”)
The 2022 Code provides a detailed schedule for whole meat roasts. It lists 130°F for 112 minutes, 131°F for 89 minutes, and 133°F for 56 minutes; then 135°F for 36 minutes, 136°F for 28 minutes, and 138°F for 18 minutes. Higher entries are 140°F for 12 minutes, 142°F for 8 minutes, 144°F for 5 minutes, and 145°F for 4 minutes. It also lists 147°F for 134 seconds, 149°F for 85 seconds, and 151°F for 54 seconds, followed by 153°F for 34 seconds, 155°F for 22 seconds, 157°F for 14 seconds, and 158°F instantaneously. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”)
The oven requirements in that roast schedule vary by roast size and oven type. For roasts under 10 pounds, the Code specifies a preheated still-dry oven of at least 350°F or a convection oven of at least 325°F. Roasts of 10 pounds or more use at least 250°F in either listed oven type. A raw or undercooked whole-muscle intact beef steak served under the Code’s exception must reach at least 145°F on both its top and bottom surfaces. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”)
Placement and thermometer accuracy
USDA directs cooks to place a thermometer in the thickest part of food and away from bone, fat, or gristle. For thin foods, the thermometer should be inserted through the side until the sensing area reaches the center point. Whole poultry should be checked in three locations: the innermost thigh, the innermost wing, and the thickest part of the breast. Fish should be measured in its thickest portion or center. (USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
Checking only one piece can miss uneven cooking. USDA says each piece should be checked because size, quantity, and distribution can make pieces reach safe temperature at different times. For a large or irregularly shaped food such as a beef roast, USDA directs cooks to check the temperature in two or more places. If manufacturer instructions are unavailable, a dial thermometer should be inserted about 2–3 inches into the food. (USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
The 2022 FDA Food Code requires food temperature-measuring devices to be accurate to ±2°F (±1°C) in its food-establishment standard. Its Annex 3 explains that Fahrenheit thermometers use a 3°F accuracy requirement where the applicable calibrated intervals are Fahrenheit. USDA identifies ice-water and boiling-water checks as two standard methods for calibrating a food thermometer. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”; USDA, “Food Thermometers”)
Reheating, cooling, and hot holding
Reheating and holding require measurements after the initial cook. The FDA Food Code requires raw animal foods cooked in a microwave to reach at least 165°F in all parts and to stand covered for 2 minutes after cooking for temperature equilibrium. The Code sets 135°F as the cooking temperature for plant foods prepared for hot holding and limits the initial heating step in a non-continuous raw-animal-food process to 60 minutes or less. (FDA, “2022 FDA Food Code - Print Version”)
FDA’s current egg guidance, accessed in 2026, specifies 145°F for 15 seconds for raw shell eggs prepared for immediate service and 155°F for 17 seconds when they are not prepared for immediate service. Microwave-cooked eggs and egg-containing foods should reach at least 165°F in all parts and stand covered for 2 minutes. (FDA, “Assuring the Safety of Eggs and Menu and Deli Items Made From Raw, Shell Eggs”)
The same FDA guidance gives a two-stage cooling limit for cooked eggs and egg-containing foods: cool from 135°F to 70°F within 2 hours, then from 70°F to 41°F or less within an additional 4 hours. For hot holding, the guidance sets 135°F or above. These are FDA guidance values accessed in 2026 and apply to the stated egg-food context. (FDA, “Assuring the Safety of Eggs and Menu and Deli Items Made From Raw, Shell Eggs”)
What restaurant studies show
Restaurant studies provide context for why thermometer technique matters beyond home kitchens. In a CDC EHS-Net study published in 2024, more than 50% of restaurant workers who cooked food said they did not usually use a thermometer to check whether food was done. In the same study, 5% said they had worked while experiencing vomiting or diarrhea during the previous year. (CDC, “Restaurant Workers”)
An earlier CDC/EHS-Net chicken study found that more than 50% of managers said thermometers were not used to determine the final cook temperature of chicken. Only 43% knew the temperature to which raw chicken needed to be cooked for safety. This was a 2013 restaurant study, so it should be read as historical evidence from that study period, not as a current estimate for every restaurant. (CDC, “Frequency of Inadequate Chicken Cross-Contamination Prevention and Cooking Practices in Restaurants”)
In a separate 2013 CDC/EHS-Net study of 385 restaurants in eight states, 49% reported that they never measured hamburgers’ final cook temperatures. At the same time, 81% reported using at least one subjective measure to determine hamburger doneness, and at least two risky ground-beef handling practices were observed in 53% of restaurants. (CDC, “Ground Beef Handling and Cooking Practices in Restaurants in Eight States”)
Another CDC study of 420 kitchen managers found a different pattern: 95.3% said a thermometer was used to check food temperatures, and more than 80% said someone was trained to calibrate the restaurant’s thermometers. About 40% of thermometer-using managers said they calibrated thermometers at least once a week. The study is identified as a 2010s restaurant study, and its publication page was accessed in 2026; those dates and the study population matter when comparing it with newer findings. (CDC, “Restaurant Food Cooling Practices”)
Together, these restaurant figures describe variation in reported practice across studies and years. For home cooking, the practical takeaway is narrower: identify the applicable food standard, measure the thickest or otherwise specified part, account for any holding time, and calibrate the instrument when accuracy is uncertain.